Detailed Analysis of Common Law Cases Assignment

Detailed Analysis of Common Law Cases - Assignment Example Boots Cash Chemists (Southern) Ltd. [1953] 1 QB 401. In this case, the court held that a seller of pharmaceuticals in a shop is not making a valid offer to the customers of these pharmaceuticals, and that, when a customer picks up a pharmaceutical and brings it to the counter, that customer is not making an acceptance. Fisher v. Bell [1961] 1 QB 394 further states that a shopkeeper offering an item for sale is not making a valid offer, but, rather, when the customer presents the item to the cashier, the customer is the one making the offer to buy. The acceptance, in this case, is the act of the cashier taking the customers money. Partridge v. Crittenden [1968] 1 WLR 1204 further provides credence for this view, as, in the Partridge case, the offer of birds for sale was not a valid offer, in part because the storekeeper might be contractually bound to sell items that he might not actually own. This line of cases establishes that Doris did not make a valid offer (rdi.co.uk.com). She put a vase in the window of her shop with a sign stating that the vase was on offer for  £500. Unless she was making a different kind of advertisement where she offered to pay somebody money in exchange for something else, as was the case in Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. [1893] 1 QB 256, the seemingly only exception to the rule that advertisements are not considered offers, then Doris cannot be said to have made a valid offer. Even if Doris was held to have made a valid offer, then Frank cannot be held to have made a valid acceptance, as he offered  £400 for it. He was thus making a counteroffer, because of the â€Å"mirror image rule,† which states that an unequivocal acceptance must mirror the offer exactly, and any deviation made by the offeree to the offeror is a counteroffer (rdi.co.uk.com; Restatement 2d Contracts  §59a).

Investment Environment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 1

Investment Environment - Assignment Example The company wants to enter the market of Saudi Arabia. In this context, the market of Saudi Arabia will be analyzed with respect to different parameters. The analysis of the market will help to bring out the potential and threats of the market for the international business operations. This report will assist to provide details about marketing opportunities and potentials for the global business environment. Argos Ltd is the UK based retail firm that operates as a multi-channel retailer recognized for delivering value, choice, and convenience to the customers. The company offers general merchandise and products for home through their 700 stores located in the UK market and Republic of Ireland along with online and telephone assistance. During the financial year of 2010, the company had been able to generate more than  £4.30 billion with the workforce of 33,000 across the business segments. The company serves more than 130 million customers annually. They are able to generate sales through the internet that consists of 26% of the total sales. These are few of the reasons for selecting the company for the analysis (Argos Limited, 2011). The Fast Moving Consumable Goods (FMCG) segment of Saudi Arabia shows huge potential. There are more than 24.20 million people out of which 7.0 million are non-Saudi residents consuming FMCG goods (Mousa, 2009). The retail sector of Saudi Arabia is expected to grow by a whopping US$ 125 billion by 2014 as there are several international brands planning to enter the retail market of Saudi Arabia. In the global retail ranking, Saudi Arabia has positioned itself in the ninth place. The market has been able to attract many international retailers and had overtaken well-known retail destinations such as Russia, Hong Kong, and Japan. More than 43% of international brands are attracted towards this retail destination.  

Factors of Single Parent Families

Factors of Single Parent Families Single-parent families  can be defined as families where a parent lives with dependent children, either alone or in a larger household, without a spouse or partner. Single-parent is a parent who cares for one or more children without physical assistance of another parent in home. Single parenthood may vary according to the local laws of different nations or regions. Single-parent families which are families with children under age 18 headed by a parent who is divorced, widowed, adoption, artificial insemination, surrogate motherhood or not married. But mostly single-parent families came about because of the death of spouse. Besides that, most of the single-parent families face common problem and special challenge, the most common problem is their children. Children who live with single father or mother, they have to take care themselves and get less care from parent because of busy working. According to social scientists, children who growing up in single-parent families are disadv antages in other ways when compared to a two-biological-parent families. Many of these problems are directly related to the poor economic condition of single-parent families, not just to parenting style. Factors of Single-Parent Families The effect on children In single-parent families, children tend to experience short-and long-term economic and psychological disadvantages, higher absentee rates at school, lower levels of education, and higher dropout rates (with boys more negatively affected than girls). Besides that, they will more delinquent activity, including alcohol and drug addiction. Teenagers, on the other hand, are more negatively affected by parental discord prior to divorce than by living in single-parent families and actually gain in responsibility as a result of altered family routines. In addition, children in single-parent families more likely to suffer emotional problem, due to mother and father split up or any other reason. Children in single-mother homes are also more likely to experience health-related problems as a result of the decline in their living standard, including the lack of health insurance. In future, children who from single-parent families become adults, they are more likely to marry early, have children early, and divorce. Girls are at greater risk of becoming single mothers as a result of noncapital childbearing or divorce. Economics of single-parent families The main problem of single-parent families is economic, in single-father families, there will be no any problem, because father have particular job, have no worry. But in single-mother families, there might have problem, for example, when single-mother divorced or widowed, she have no any job or any income to maintain the families. Single-mother has to face economic problem, such as lack of money paid for children studies. Lower level of educational achievement Children or teenagers who live under single-parent families will face lower level of education problem, this is because the families facing finance problem, having poor economic condition, so the parent have no enough money send the children to tuition, or any learning centre to have extra learning, children just only go to the government school study. Besides that, parent who have finance problem, he or she dont have enough money to buy the reference books for their child, they just study the text book, cant get extra learning material or knowledge. Children / Teenagers having conflict with their parent Children or teenagers who lives in single-parent families will have conflict with the parent, this is because the parent are busy working outside and spend less time with their children, or even cant have a good communicate with them, lack communication between parent and their children, then the conflict occur. Parent who busy working outside, they cant spend more time on them, thats why the parent dont even know what their child need or wants. Besides that, children or teenagers with argue with their parent because the parent cant understand them, cant have a good communicate with them. Less supervised by parent In a single-parent families, single father or mother are busy working at outside, they dont have much more time supervised their children. This will cause the children turn to bad side, because the parent cant spend time on supervise them. When parent busy working not at home, or parent dont have much time with the children, so when the children will feel alone or boring, they will hanging out with friends, truancy with friends, smoking with friends, or taking drugs. In this situation, the parent doesnt know at all, they dont know what their children doing outside, making good or bad friends. No discipline Children who lives in single-parent families, most of them dont have discipline, this is because single father or mother didnt spend time on family education, they just busy with their job. Family education is important for children, for example, children who dont have discipline, he or she is just a rude boy or girl, they dont know what is respect and how to respect other people. Besides that, when the children study in school without discipline, he or she dont know how to respect the teacher and not following the instruction, for example, when teacher teaching the lesson, he or she playing with other friends and disturbing other students, he or she will be punish by the teacher or headmaster due to dont have any discipline. Divorce parent/single parent finds new partner who treats the children of the previous partner badly When a divorce parent or single parent live single for few years, he or she might find a new partner for accompany his or her. But here is the problem, if the parent find the new partner is bad, the new partner will treats the children of the precious partner badly. For example, if the new partner of the parent doesnt like the children, he or she will keep making trouble on them, such as beating them, threaten the children, and any other worst things on them.

The Home Depot Essay -- GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

The Home Depot Introduction Retailing building supply stores have become a popular retail industry sector due to increased public awareness and the need of many homeowners for the home improvement products. Back in the 1970s, long before warehouse stores ruled home improvement land, do-it-yourselfers shopped at â€Å"home centers.† These 30,000 square foot stores offered cheaper prices and wider selection of products, about 25,000 more than local hardware stores and eliminated the extra trip to the lumberyard. The dependence of many of these retailers upon the homebuilding industry for much of their business has also been reduced and the warehouse superstores, such as Home Depot, have become more important. The smaller companies in the retail building supply industry are facing economic difficulties as the industry leaders continue to dominate and warehouse super centers are becoming more evident. Company Overview Founded in 1978, The Home Depot is the world largest home improvement retailer and the third largest retailer in the United States followed by Lowe’s Companies, Inc. At the end of fiscal year 1999, the company was operating 930 stores, including 854 Home Depot stores, 15 Expo Design Center stores and 2 Villager’s Hardware stores in the United States; 53 Homes Depot in Canada; 4 Home Depot stores in Chile; and 2 Home Depot stores in Puerto Rico. In addition, they operated wholly owned subsidiaries Apex Supply Company, Georgia Lighting, Maintenance Warehouse and National Blinds and Wallpaper. They approximately employed 201,000 associates at the end of the year. The company has been publicly held since 1981. In 1978 when Bernard Marcus and Arthur Blank, executives with Handy Dan Home Improvement Centers, found themselves out of work after a corporate takeover at Handy Dan. Joined by Ronald Brill another Handy Dan employee; and Pat Farrah, former owner of Homeco, the world’s first home improvement warehouse, they mapped out plan for a bigger and better store catering to the needs of do-it-yourselfers. These Warehouse type stores, each averaging about 130,000 square feet, stock 40,000 to 50,000 home improvement products and are aimed mainly at the do-it-yourself trade. The stores however also attract many professional-building contractors. Products include lumber, floor and wall covering, hardware, paint, plumbing supplies, and tools. Home... ...eferences Lowe’s Companies, Inc. Declares Cash Dividend, PR Newswire, June 12, 2000 In an Expansion Mode, Lowe’s Sharpens its Customer Focus, The Weekly Newspaper for the Home Furnishing Network, June 5, 2000 p19 Lowe’s Companies Inc., The wall Street Journal, June 1, 2000 Lowe’s Outlines Focus on Customers at Annual Meeting, Pr Newswire, May 26, 2000 Lowe’s Eyes Markets for Growth, Corporate Financing Week, April 17, 2000, p3 Retailing building supply industry, The value Line Investment Survey, April 14,2000, p881 Lowe’s Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1999, Available at: http://www.Lowes.com/ Home Depot Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1999, Available at: http://homedepot.com/ Customer Service that is above and beyond, Philadelphia Business Journal, April 7, 2000 p42 We’re No.1 The Market Loves Top Dogs. Should you?, Fortune, March 6,2000 p446 The Home Depot reports 29% Increase in First Quarter Net Earning; Comparable Store Sales up 7%, PR Newswire, May 16, 2000 The Home Depot Looks to Floor Industry; Test Store Opens in Dallas this Summer, The weekly Newspaper for the Home Furnishing Network, March 27, 2000 p1 Carving a New Niche, Do It Yourself Retailing, September 1999, p49

Development Methods

Agile software development refers to the processes and methodologies of software development which are based upon the implementation of iterative development with the help of a joint venture through which solutions are devised by making use of cross-functional teams. Coined in the year 2001 with the promulgation of the Agile Manifesto, this special program of computer program development mainly focuses on the philosophy of leadership and accountability with the intention to fulfill the needs of customers and achieving company goals. Moreover it does not only emphasize on best teamwork practices but also promotes best industry practices.Hence agile methodology of software development is extremely beneficial for industries and software companies as it provides a greatest number of myriad benefits at their disposal (Reifer, 2006). On the flip side we have the traditional method of computer program and software development which includes a number of different methodologies which can be u sed in various ways for the fulfillment of objectives through traditional methods. Traditional methods are commonly classified or labeled as all those methods of software development that cannot be categorized or accommodated in agile development method.Therefore when talking about traditional methods we have at our disposal some of the ways that are known as iterative development procedures, waterfall methods and even cowboy tailoring, hence in a nutshell it encompasses all those characteristics or most of them that are not the salient feature of the agile method of software and computer programming, hence with increasing innovation and advancement taking place in the technological sector the efficacy and credibility of traditional methods of software development is slowly and steadily decreasing (Lewis, 2008).Salient features of each methodology As stated earlier that some of the major characteristics that are among the prime features of agile method of software development due to which it is considered highly preferable for computer companies in contemporary times. All the methods that are described and accommodated by the agile method promote teamwork, collaboration and adaptability to the changing environment and scenario of the technological mainstream.Since agile method accentuates upon the feature of adaptability potentials with the passage of time most of the computer programs that are made by using agile methodology do not focus on long term planning. Each iteration that is designed by using the principle designing features of the program consist of short time frames or time boxes as they are professionally referred to as. These time boxes last for minimum two to a maximum four weeks.However it is worth mentioning here that every fragment of information that is designed using this method of software technology uses and adheres to the principles and features of proper analysis, observation, market strategy prevalent at that specific period of time and involves proper and well-coordinated collaboration of all team members that contribute their opinion and perspectives after which the decision of software developing is finalized and presented to the major stake holders of the company (Highsmith, 2002).With all such features incorporated well in the entire project that is looked forward towards designing the probability of risks and hazards that can affect the entire project in adverse ways minimizes substantially and at the same time makes the entire computer program highly susceptible and non-immune for the adaptability of changes that can easily be made in the rudimentary mechanism of the entire computer program to make it suitable and usable in the long run.As far as the features of the traditional methods of computer program development is concerned since there are many methods that can be classified under the banner of traditional method, each method has its own dos and don’ts. For example some of the salient features of the Waterfall Method which is known as one of the structured organized of all traditional methods follows a strict procedure of stepping through requirements, analysis, design and coding in an at all once sort of a way which basically halts the sustainability and longevity of the computer program being designed.In contrast to this we have the cowboy method which does not follow or adhere to any specific rules and regulations of software program development and n which the team that is developing and designing the program have complete liberty as a result of which the outcome is not as effective and long-lasting as made by following other program and methods of software development (Kram and Tsui, 2009). Pros and Cons of each methodologyEvery program of software development is accompanied with its own pros and cons and similar is the case of agile and traditional methods of computer program development. We will have a look at some of the advantages of the agile method and procedur e first. The biggest advantage that web and software developers when using agile methodology is that the program outcome of this software is highly adaptable and possess the ability of undergoing changes and alterations that makes it adaptable to the dynamically changing environment of the technological and web arena.A further benefit that is an extension of the former one is that the developing and technical team does not have to invest further time, effort and resources to cater to the needs of the client that has altered, if such a condition does take place which is frequent enough slight or even substantial changes can be made without exerting oneself too much or without wasting too much time and further resources to ultimately gratify the client.Another very positive point of using agile method for computer programming is attributed to the presence of constant face to face communication between the developing team and that with the customer leaves no space for speculation in th e work and the kind of task that has been undertaken by the company itself.Furthermore the documentation made through agile methodology is short, concise, and crisp and is targeted specifically to the point that is required by the client without any redundant and irrelevant information. With the collective and flawless consolidation of all these factors the software prepared by using this methodology is as demanded and as per the requirement of the customer. Once done with this lets have a look at some of the cons and don’ts that are related to agile method.It has normally been viewed that the software development prepared using the agile method is limited in benefits to short scale projects, if large scale projects are prepared using this method their effectivity and credibility may not last long mainly because of the fact that in large scale projects it become difficult to evaluate the effort and scope of resources that needs to be invested in the preparation of the project during in its initial stages of software development cycle in particular.Secondly, another shortcoming of agile method also lies in the fact that it does not completely emphasize on the preparation of mandatory documentation and designing which are some of the elements that are extremely important and dire for any software program and for the maintenance of its efficacy.Agile methods are always accompanied with the threat that the customer or the client may easily withdraw or rollback the entire project if he is not able to understand the objectives that the project needs to fulfill and the benefits that the project can extract for him as a result of which the entire project and the resources and effort invested in it will go in vain.Moreover it is also worth mentioning here that agile method of program development is carefully and manageably handled by professional, highly qualified, experienced and learned computer professionals so that they possess all the necessary skills in co mmunication as well as adequate technical expertise to satisfy all the myriad and diverse requirements that the client needs in the computer program he is looking forward to design. Once done with the advantages and disadvantages of agile methodologies of technical software development we now move on to the pros and cons of traditional methods (Sanja, 2010).Since traditional method accommodates a wide array of different methods and procedures some are effective and advantageous whereas others do not share the same level of credibility and usage. Some of the traditional methods that are used such as the Waterfall method is highly accredited as some of the most organized and well-managed ways of software development due to the high level of convenience and simplicity it offer at the disposal of the client. Waterfall Method which is among the most prominent method of traditional development offers the effective departmentalization of resources and expertise as well as of managerial con trol.It also follows some of the key principles that are vital for the success of any project; these include analysis of an issue through all ways and magnitudes through proper consultation and recommendations from all major experts involved in the process, but despite of this a major drawback that is offered by the usage and adherence to the principles of traditional methods of software development are that the software program constructed by making use of traditional methods do not have the potential of turning back or reverting the process that has been established once, as a result of this if a client demands an alteration in the basic mechanism of the program that ahs initially been designed for him, the company employees and the technical staff involved in the making of the program will have to start from the scratch in order to incorporate the change demanded by the customer. This will also require greater investment of time, resources and efforts from the entire team in orde r to conform to clients needs.When such processes take place time for other projects that are pending have less time for their completion as a result of which a chain reaction of chaos, anomie and mismanagement initiates that disturbs the entire process of effective management (Keith, 2007). The affectivity of each software development method depends on the kind of the client and the requirement of the client that it is dealing with. In contemporary technological mainstream we see that the entire business of Information technology has been shifted overseas and are being handled primarily by countries that can provide ample and low cost labor force such as China and India.In such cases these countries work for many of the software companies located in United States and other major economies of the world and their companies like Microsoft, Dell and Hewlett Packard, therefore the choice of the software that they demand has to be satisfied under all conditions and the requirements and n ature of the software in turn determines the kind of the software that needs to be used for the making of the software. In some cases the company might show interest in developing software though agile while in other ways traditional methods have to be applied. Hence in a nutshell the affectivity of each methodology of software making depends on the requirements of the client and the nature of the software that needs to be developed by the concerned organization.Requirements and demands may also vary at a local level for example a local Indian software company known as Satyam mostly shows interest in developing software through agile methods as alterations in it can readily be achieved to cater to the needs and requirements of their target audience. In some circumstances it is also a possibility that the software model and the specializations and expertise of the company involved in providing technological services come into consideration when choosing the methodology being applied. Some companies despite of client reliance and coercion apply tactics in order to convince the client the best way through which his services can reach his specified target audience in order to make sure that the capital investment being made by the client provides him maximum benefit in the form of the services being provided by the software company itself (Hass, 2007).

The works and life of Archimedes

The Great Mechantc Not much is known about Archimede's life. He was born in Syracuse on the eastern coast of Sicily. His father was an astronomer named Feidias. His family was probably quite prosperous, despite many contrary beliefs and opinions,as he was accompanied by servants wherever he went and also travelled, which at that time was very costly.Unlike different spiritual men of his time,he did not travel to other countries, except one, and that the city of Alexandria in Egypt, where at the famous nstitution,Musaeum of Alexandria,he consorted with famous scientists like Conon the Samian,Dositheos,Eratosthenes of Cyrene and others with whom he kept regular contact with,by sending his work to them and asking for their opinion before it was published. The exact time of his stay in Alexandria can only be approximately identified,and that between 250-240 bc.During his stay he made a remarkable discovery:he invented the screw,a pumping machine,whose practical spread was so great that i t was used throughout the known world,and is still used today for pumping liquids and other fossil elements . Basically Archimedes's machine was a helical serface around an axis inside a tube. By rotation of the shaft this incredible invention could transfer water from a lower to a higher point. The first recorded use of such an object is in a text by Athenaeus of Naucratis,where he describes of an enormous ship that was designed by Archias of Corinth for the tyrant of Siracuse, Hiero ll.Since this was one of the biggest ships in its time it would be inevitable that it would take on water. Therefore, Archimedes's screw was used to pump the water back into the sea. It is unclear whether or not Archimedes designed this pump for the use on the hip but it is widely thought that the great mathematician invented such a tool to help Egyptians maneuver water from lower land to higher for watering the fields. This invention has survived the winds of time and is still used today,most recently applyed at draining parts of land in the Netherlands that were underwater and also for stableizing the tower of Pisa in 2001.According to information from Arab sources noted by A. Favaro, Archimedes probably made another trip to Egypt, during which he designed and executed several projects on water management of the river Nile, projects which are reported by Arab uthors. Beyond these signs though,essentially we know that Archimedes travelled to Alexandria only once and no other time, since, according to all sources the greatest part of his life he spent in his hometown of Syracuse, where he came up with all his theoretical or mechanical discoveries.On the return to his homeland Archimedes made another very important discovery. Hiero wanted a golden crown to be made for him so he asked a goldsmith and gave him 772 grams of gold with a mandate to fulfill his wish. And so, the wasnt produced from Just gold but had another material inside. This is when Hiero,called Archimedes and asked him to examine the crown without deforming it and find out whether or not gold was the only element that assembled the crown. Archimedes tried for a long time, to solve the problem.Then finaly one day when he was bathing,probably in a barel,he realised the displacement of water when he entered the bath. ,That is when he realised this was directly proportional to the problem of the authenticity of the gold crown, Vitruvius states that Archimedes Jumped out of his bath and ran out shouting : â€Å"Eureka , eureka , † Basically,what is now known today as Archimedes's Principle,states that the olume of displaced fluid is equal to the volume of the submerged object. ln more general terms an two objects with the same volume and same mass have different density between each other.Archimedes carried out his experiment by getting a scale and putting the crown on one end and the equivelent of gold on the other. Then when submerged in water if the crown is made of Just gold the scale w ould balance if not it would tip more towards either side. One of Archimedes's more controversal discoveries is the harnis of sunlight into a heat ray using a solar mirror. Legend has it that that when Siracuse was under siege y the Romans the structure was used to burn the Romans ships.The solar mirror , was in fact not one mirror but many mirrors together,in which solar energy was accumulated and then converted into very high heat and when directed to a target,it would cause it to catch fire . Although there were historical references to the mechanism ,made by Plutarch , Lucian , Galen , Efstathios and evidence for the use of this weapon in one of the sieges of Constantinople, the existence of this mechanism was questioned by many, with Ren © Descartes being one of them and because of that,was regarded a myth .The fact that Archimedes had indeed discovered the properties of mirrors is demonstrated by a book by German professor Hop â€Å"History of Physics which states that in 1 492 in Venice , the Greek professor George Vallas had in his library a book by Archimedes called ‘Mirror' , but later lost. So, if Archimedes didn't know enough information about mirrors and was not sure about putting them into practice , why would he write a whole book about it? Later researchers tried to make the experiment, using materials known in the time of Archimedes , but failed or succeeded partially.

Destiny essays

Destiny essays What is destiny? To many people it is how they live their lives. They believe that everyones life has its own destiny or course. According to Websters Dictionary destiny is a predetermined course of events often held to be an irresistible power or agency. (Websters Dictionary) In other words our destiny is out fate. It could either be a good thing or a bad thing and to most people it has already been decided by a Supreme Being or God. But that is just the pessimistic view on destiny. Others believe that one can decide his or her own destiny. A person just has to know how to control it and become a master of it. I personally believe that one can control his or her own destiny. That is if you strive to do that yourself. If you just live your life expecting that everything will fall in your lap you are wrong. Nothing in life is pre-destined as in the people you meet, the jobs you get or the person you marry. If that were to be true then everyone would be happy, that is if your destiny is for you to be happy. I think that the notion of destiny is just an excuse that people use for the misfortunes or fortunes that they encounter. During the course of ones life you can began to make your own destiny. From childhood up to the point where you die you always have aspirations for yourself and that makes the person strive for it, not because you were put on this earth for that particular reason. Evolution proceeds under a law as unerring as any well-established scientific law, namely, that of karma or the law of cause and effect. Each action, each desire, each thought, produces its result with unfailing certainty. "As a person sows, so shall he also reap." This makes perfection possible, for knowledge is power, and when a person knows the law and works with it, he can produce any result he chooses, he becomes master of his destiny. (Encyclopedia of Philosophy) It is impossible for anyone to become a master o...

How to Study for Biology Exams

How to Study for Biology Exams Exams can seem intimidating and overwhelming for biology students. The key to overcoming these obstacles is preparation. By learning how to study for biology exams you can conquer your fears. Remember, the purpose of an exam is for you to demonstrate that you understand the concepts and information that have been taught. Below are some excellent tips to help you learn how to study for biology exams. Get Organized   An important key to success in biology is organization. Good time management skills will help you to become more organized and waste less time preparing to study. Items such as daily planners and semester calendars will help you to know what you need to do and when you need to have it done. Start Studying Early It is very important that you start preparing for biology exams well in advance. I know, I know, it is almost ​tradition for some to wait until the last minute, but students who implore this tactic dont perform their best, dont retain the information and get worn out. Review the Textbook and Lecture Notes   Be sure that you review your lecture notes before the exam. You should start reviewing your notes on a daily basis. This will ensure that you gradually learn the information over time and dont have to cram. Your biology textbook is a wonderful source for finding illustrations and diagrams that will help you visualize the concepts you are learning. Be sure to reread and review the appropriate chapters and information in your textbook. You will want to make sure that you understand all the key concepts and topics. Get Answers To Your Questions If you are having difficulty understanding a topic or have unanswered questions, discuss them with your teacher. You dont want to go into an exam with gaps in your knowledge. Get together with a friend or classmate and have a study session. Take turns asking and answering questions. Write your answers down in complete sentences to help you organize and express your thoughts. If your teacher holds a review session, be sure to attend. This will help to identify specific topics that will be covered, as well as fill in any gaps in knowledge. Help sessions are also an ideal place to get answers to your questions. Quiz Yourself   To help prepare yourself for the exam and find out how much you know, give yourself a quiz. You can do this by using prepared flash cards or taking a sample test. You can also use online biology games and quiz resources.  If your teacher holds a review session, be sure to attend. This will help to identify specific topics that will be covered, as well as fill in any gaps in knowledge. Help sessions are also an ideal place to get answers to your questions. Relax   Now that you have followed the previous steps, its time to rest and relax. You should be well prepared for your biology exam. Its a good idea to make sure you get plenty of sleep the night before your exam. You have nothing to worry about because you are well prepared. Take An AP Biology Course   Those who wish to gain credit for introductory college level biology courses should consider taking an Advanced Placement Biology course. Students enrolled in the AP Biology course must take the AP Biology exam to gain credit. Most colleges will give credit for entry-level biology courses for students who earn a score of 3 or better on the exam. Use Good Study Aids   Biology flash cards are excellent tools for studying and memorizing key biology terms and information. AP Biology Flash Cards are a wonderful resource, not only for those taking AP Biology but also for biology students in general. If taking the AP Biology exam, these Top Five AP Biology Books contain extremely useful information that is sure to help you score high on the AP Biology exam.

9 Ways of Saying Down in Spanish

9 Ways of Saying Down in Spanish Down is one of those simple, everyday words that can be especially challenging to translate to Spanish. One reason is that it can function as five parts of speech: most commonly an adverb, but also as a preposition, verb, noun and adjective. But even within those categories, theres no consistent way of translating the word. In many cases, the best approach to take in translation is to reword the English and then translate that. For example, if you try translating a sentence such as Im down to only one dollar word-for-word, youll find yourself confused at best. Instead, try using the verb quedar, often used to indicate a remaining quantity. The idea is expressed with Me queda sà ³lo un dà ³lar, which literally means Only one dollar remains for me. Down as the Opposite of Up That said, in many contexts - such as when down means the opposite of up and indicates motion or direction - it is possible to use the adverb abajo, either by itself or in combination with other words, or the related verb bajar, which typically means to go down. This includes most cases where down is functioning as an adverb. Some examples: When I look down I feel dizzy. Cuando miro para abajo me mareo.The accident left him paralyzed from the neck down. El accidente lo dejà ³ paralizado desde el cuello para abajo.The Bilbao Market has gone down 22.72 points at midsession. La Bolsa de Bilbao ha bajado 22,72 puntos a media sesià ³n.Its essential that the roots grow downward in order to maximize the absorption of water. Es esencial que las raà ­ces crezcan hacia abajo para que maximizar su absorcià ³n de agua.Gravitational force pulls the satellite downward. La fuerza gravitatoria tira del satà ©lite hacia abajo.We have to get down from the train at the border. Tenemos que bajar del tren en la frontera.Everyone from the governor down is immersed in a web of corruption. Todos desde el gobernador para ajabo estn inmersos in una aurealoa de corrupcià ³n.Another possibility for adventurers is to camp down in the canyon. Otra posibilidad para los aventureros es acampar abajo en el caà ±Ãƒ ³n.The temperature went down fro m 30 degrees to 20 degrees. La temperatura se bajà ³ de 30 grados hasta 20 grados. I prefer to sleep face down. Prefiero dormir boca abajo. Down as an Adjective When down functions as a adjective in English, it often has a specialized meaning that depends on the context. Youll usually be best off recasting the English before translating: The wireless network is down today. La red inalmbrica no funciona hoy. (Literally, the wireless network isnt working today.)She knew he was down with the flu because she called him twice. Sabà ­a que à ©l estaba enfermo de influenza porque ella le llamà ³ dos veces. (Down here is being used as roughly synonymous with sick.)Were down 10 points. Estamos perdiendo por diez puntos. (Literally, were losing by 10 points.)Its a shame that he is always down on himself. Es lstima que à ©l se menosprecie a sà ­ mismo. (The phrase to be down on someone is a colloquial way of indicating that someone devalues someone.)They have me down for 2 p.m. Tengo una cita para 2 de la tarde. (Literally, I have an appointment for 2 p.m.)The down payment normally is a percentage of the price of the house. El pago inicial normalmente es un porcentaje del precio de la casa. Down as a Particle Down is a part of many English phrasal verbs - verbs that are made up of a verb followed by down to form a phrase that has a meaning separate from the verb by itself. To translate, these two-word verbs must be learned separately just as any other vocabulary. Here are a few of many possible examples: My mother isnt going to back down so easily. Mi madre no va a recular tan fcil.The bar was shut down for not meeting safety requirements. El bar fue clausurado por no cumplir las medidas de seguridad.He bowed down before the statue. Se inclinà ³ ante la estatua.The Iowa woman burned down a friends house because she defriended her on Facebook. La mujer de Iowa incendià ³ la casa de una amiga porque la eliminà ³ del Facebook.The government is cracking down on illegal arms sales. El gobierno toma medidas enà ©rgicas contra la venta ilegal de armas.My cousin is unable to  hold down a job. Mi prima no puede durar en un trabajo. (Literally, my cousin is unable to last in a job.)The mayor played down the murders. El alcalde no le dio tanta importancia a los asesinatos. (Literally, the mayor did not give much importance to the murders.) Down as a Noun The down of a bird is typically referred to as el plumà ³n, although a down pillow is referred to as una almohada de plumas. The down of a fruit is known as la pelusa. In football, a down is usually un down. Down as a Verb As a verb, down usually refers to shooting something down from the sky. A good verb to use is derribar. The Soviets downed the plane with a simple attack.  Los sovià ©ticos  derribaron el avià ³n  con un simple ataque.   Down Syndrome The congenital condition is known as el sà ­ndrome de Down, sometimes abbreviated as SD. (Sources: Sample sentences are adapted from a variety of sources written by native Spanish speakers. Among those consulted for this lesson are 20minutos; Twitter conversations; Biologà ­a y Geologà ­, Ciencias pra el uno Contemporneo; Visià ³n Santigueà ±a; Tatoeba; Namancambre Tours; Finanzas Prcticas; Yahoo.mx and TN.com.ar.)

Organisations, Competition and Environment - Assignment for Higher Essay

Organisations, Competition and Environment - Assignment for Higher National Diploma in Business and Management - Essay Example Recently, the Czech Republic and other Eastern European countries were admitted into the European Union. I hypothesise that the entry of the Czech Republic has significant positive effects for companies in the European Union given that tariffs between the Czech Republic and other EU countries in general and the United Kingdom in particular have been eliminated. The aim of this paper is to prepare an article for a UK company that has operations in the Czech Republic describing the effects on the company of the Czech Republic’s admission into the Union. The rest of the paper is organised as follows: Section 2 describes the European Union how the admission of the Czech Republic into the Union has affected our chosen company, Section 3 presents a syllabus of the main points to be included in the article and Section 4 is a presentation of the article as it will be published in the companies periodicals. The European Union was formally established in 1992 by the Maastricht Treaty (Palmowski, 2003). The Maastricht treaty brought together the 3 pillars including: the European Community (EC) whose decisions were governed by the European Commission, the European Council and the European Parliament and guarded by the European Court of Justice; the Common Foreign and Security Policy, which is determined on the basis of intergovernmental cooperation in the European Council alone; Justice and Home Affairs. (Palmowski, 2003). The European Union was formed as a continuation of the process to promote an economic and political Union in Europe which began with the formation of the European Community after the Second World War. (Palmowski, 2003). In addition, in the 1980s, Europe became more concern about the internationalisation and globalisation of trade and politics in which small European States could only have an influential voice if they acted in coordination with each other. (Palmowski, 2003). The

International strategy management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

International strategy management - Essay Example will present some of these best practices that Southwest Airlines engaged in as a means of explaining them to the reader and highlighting their importance with regard to the overall success that the airline has experienced over the past several decades. Without even delving into the benefits and utility that the products and services southwest airline provide to the customer helps to increase their profitability and success, the reader should first focus upon the issue of culture and how southwest airlines engage this culture within their stakeholders/employees. Ultimately, far too many firms engage with a business model and seek to promote a given good or service to the customer; only to consider the power and impacts that culture within the organization can have once the business recognizes that this could potentially maximize profitability. However, in the case of Southwest Airlines, since its inception the firm has been focused upon providing high standards of culture, employee loyalty, competitive salaries, and promotion from within as a hallmark of the way in which it engages with its stakeholders. One of the first and most obvious of these is with regard to Southwest Airlines â€Å"no layoff† policy. As anyone remotel y familiar with the airline industry can attest, I and Lowe’s within the market creates hardship on air carriers as they must continually react to the change in demand that air service illustrates. As a function of this, many of the larger airline firms such as Delta, United, and international carriers continually layoff surplus employees during a period in which demand is relatively low and then rehire individuals or hire new ones, when demand is high again. Recognizing that this continual shift in demand was harming employee loyalty, southwest engaged in a â€Å"no layoff† policy; one in which the employee was assured that even if market conditions were poor, their position would be saved and Southwest Airlines would do anything and

Legitimacy of Secular Authority Among Calvin, Luther and Muntzer Essay

Legitimacy of Secular Authority Among Calvin, Luther and Muntzer - Essay Example Several centuries later, Martin Luther wrote the book On Secular Authority, whose very principles are said to be the foundation of the principle of the separation of the Church and State. Luther crafted the doctrine of the two kingdoms or the theory that God wields authority in two ways: one through the laws, and; two, through the Gospel. Hard on the heels of the Lutheran Reformation was Calvinism, which was founded by John Calvin. Echoing Luther, Calvin believes that mankind is under two kinds of government, the spiritual and the secular. In the last chapter of Book V of his book Institutions, Calvin essays the role, duties and functions of secular authority. While both men acknowledge the importance of secular authority to maintain order in society, Luther cautions it from encroaching into the business of the spiritual on the ground that secular power carries no importance in the eyes of God and is confined to a kingdom separate from that of God. Calvin, on the other hand, believes that there is no sense in severing God’s laws from manmade laws considering that to do so is to ignore the ascendancy of God’s law. In this respect, it is fundamental upon secular authority to enforce God’s laws as well. ... Since Frederick was entitled to a vote in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor, Luther was almost untouchable (Noble et al 392). This call for help for secular support was not however, an easy decision for Luther and gave his writings dimensions not found in other reformists before him. Thus, although he ascribed to secular authority divinity to which people owed obedience to, he was quick to qualify this divinity as exclusive of the obligation to establish and maintain true religion (Estes 356). Prior to seeking support from secular authorities, however, Luther appealed to popes and bishops to spearhead the reform movement, believing that the responsibility belong to them although he opined that such personalities had no special authority to rule the church. Failing to get their support, Luther turned his attention to the German princes (Estes 356). In his works Treatise on Good Works and On the Papacy in Rome, Luther approaches the idea of secular authority with respect even attr ibuting it the characteristic of being a divine institution. He qualifies however, that secular authority’s jurisdiction only applies to temporal matters and the punishment of violation of the second table of the Decalogue such as murder, theft, adultery, and the like. Nonetheless, Luther believes that there are situations in which secular authorities may have ascendancy over members of the clergy, such as when a clergyman commits a crime. Matters pertaining to preaching the Gospel and giving absolution are however, beyond the authority of secular powers. However, property and property rights may be conceded by secular authorities, which exercise power over them, to members of the clergy (Estes 362). In Treatise, Luther defends the right of the secular authority to

COPORATE FINANCE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

COPORATE FINANCE - Essay Example This capital need not be paid back to the investors as long as the company is in existence. Thus, equity source is the least risky source of fund from the view point of borrower. At the same time, when the company makes huge profit, the profit left after meeting all obligations might be distributed among the equity shareholders, and this is the most appealing factor of equity capital. That does not mean that company has to distribute capital whenever it makes residual profit (profit left after making all other payments). The decision to distribute or not to distribute divisible profit is ultimately taken by the Board of Directors. The return to ordinary shareholders (dividend/cost to the company) is paid after meeting all payments like dividend to preference share holders and interest payments to debenture holders and other long term suppliers of funds. Financial needs are continuous for any growing firm. As the needs for expansion and diversification enhances these days. This capital can come from debt or equity. When companies can finance themselves with either debt or equity, certain questions arise. Is one better than the other' If so, should firms be financed with all debt or all equity' If the best solution is some mix of debt and equity, what is the optimal mix' It is generally understood that the optimal capital structure of a firm is the composition of debt and equity which results in the minimum cost of capital. But the determination of an optimal capital structure is not an exact science. Firms have to first analyze a number of factors such as the firm's business risk, its need for financial flexibility, shareholder wealth maximization, survival against competition, assurance of a steady source of funds, acquisition and maintenance of a good rating in the market, profitability, and growth rate before deciding upon an app ropriate capital structure. All these factors are a pointer to one important fact, that, companies will have to search for the right capital structure which enhances firm value while minimizing costs. The capital required for investment, while often scarce, can be generated from a variety of sources. How firms choose among these various sources and why, have been the source of much debate in financial literature. Many theories have been developed to show the relationship between capital structure and firm value. There are different views on how capital structure influences firm value. Some authors argue that there is no relationship between capital structure and the value of the firm, whereas others hold that financial leverage has a positive effect on firm value. There are also some who take the intermediate approach that financial leverage has a positive effect on the value of the firm that is only up to a certain point and thereafter there will be negative effect, another contention that, other things being equal, the greater the leverage, the greater the firm value. According to the net income approach when leverage varies, the cost of debt and the cost of equity remain unchanged. Therefore, the weighted average cost of capital declines as leverage increases and the value of the firm will increase. Under the net operating income approach, the overall capitalization rate remains constant for all degrees of leverage and therefore, the value of the firm will remain unchanged.

China Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

China - Coursework Example 183). When Mao came into power, his main goals focused on the improvement of social conditions in China. Hence, he initiated â€Å"land reform, the collectivization of agriculture, and the spread of medical services† (â€Å"Three Chinese,† n.d.). However, Mao’s restrictive leadership, caused by his strong desire for equality and fears of capitalist resurgence, prevented the modernization of China and led to the Cultural Revolution (Jackson, 2004). The revolution sought to limit the intellectualization in the country and to advance its agriculture. Unfortunately, it failed to bring development to China and seriously damaged the nation’s progress (Jackson, 2004). Mao’s conservative politics meant that China had to remain isolated from international trade. Despite his ideal visions for the country, its economic system remained insufficient and the problem was brought into greater attention in the 1960s (Lin, Cai, & Li, 2003, p. 137). However, it was only in 1978 that significant changes were made, out of the Chinese’ awareness that they are getting left behind by other industrialized nations. Also, leaders realized that China needs to change its traditional agricultural economy into a modern and industrial one in order to achieve progress (Lin, Cai, & Li, 2003, pp. 137-138). The collapsing economy and the more impoverished citizenry all led to the strengthening of economic reforms. Currently, the trade relations between China and the U.S. is prosperous—about 75% of U.S. imports are from China, making it the country’s 4th largest partner (Griswold, 2002). However, the U.S. is exercising utmost caution in their political relations since China is becoming a major threat economically and politically (Dumbaugh, 2006). It has become more assertive in international policymaking (a sign of its greater power) and it

Lesson Plan Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Lesson Plan Analysis - Essay Example Instances of such instructional strategy could be further gleaned from the lesson plan because it contains actions where readings and discussions are to be made regarding feelings, which afterwards will have to be drawn by the students to make the connection with what they felt on four pieces of small paper plates. On the other hand, the instructional strategy of prime background knowledge which is likewise gleaned on the current lesson plan on feelings is a method where new information or ability is associated with what the students already have learned or have experienced. A perfect example of this is when the students will be asked to name occasions on where they have portrayed and reacted to various feelings related to a particular type of situation – like when they met somebody new or when a favorite toy was broken. By asking students relevant questions regarding prior knowledge, they will be able to relate the current topic to past circumstances that are familiar to them (Effective Instructional Strategies 2004). Last but not the least is the review for fluency and generalization instructional strategy. This technique is also present within the lesson plan since it provides students other chances to put in actual practice what they have learned. In so doing this the students are able to retain the knowledge after sometime and will be able to relate it in various circumstances (Effective Instructional Strategies 2004). To make this quite effective, the students must be required to have an intensive discussion of the subject matter, which is feelings, and should be guided appropriately on situations where such feelings apply (Effective Instructional Strategies 2004). Content specific strategies in general are detailed plans or actions on how to go about a certain lesson to enhance the learning abilities of the students and instructional techniques of the teacher. Some content specific strategies are: cognitive strategies, affective

China Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

China - Coursework Example 183). When Mao came into power, his main goals focused on the improvement of social conditions in China. Hence, he initiated â€Å"land reform, the collectivization of agriculture, and the spread of medical services† (â€Å"Three Chinese,† n.d.). However, Mao’s restrictive leadership, caused by his strong desire for equality and fears of capitalist resurgence, prevented the modernization of China and led to the Cultural Revolution (Jackson, 2004). The revolution sought to limit the intellectualization in the country and to advance its agriculture. Unfortunately, it failed to bring development to China and seriously damaged the nation’s progress (Jackson, 2004). Mao’s conservative politics meant that China had to remain isolated from international trade. Despite his ideal visions for the country, its economic system remained insufficient and the problem was brought into greater attention in the 1960s (Lin, Cai, & Li, 2003, p. 137). However, it was only in 1978 that significant changes were made, out of the Chinese’ awareness that they are getting left behind by other industrialized nations. Also, leaders realized that China needs to change its traditional agricultural economy into a modern and industrial one in order to achieve progress (Lin, Cai, & Li, 2003, pp. 137-138). The collapsing economy and the more impoverished citizenry all led to the strengthening of economic reforms. Currently, the trade relations between China and the U.S. is prosperous—about 75% of U.S. imports are from China, making it the country’s 4th largest partner (Griswold, 2002). However, the U.S. is exercising utmost caution in their political relations since China is becoming a major threat economically and politically (Dumbaugh, 2006). It has become more assertive in international policymaking (a sign of its greater power) and it

Water resources Essay Example for Free

Water resources Essay 1) Describe the path a molecule of water might follow through the hydrologic cycle from the ocean Evaporation takes place and the water molecule is taken high up in the atmosphere, where temperatures are very low. Continued accumulation of the molecules of water saturates the air and hence rain clouds are formed though condensation process. Precipitation in the form of rainfall, snow then occurs. Where precipitation occurs depends on whether or not the clouds were transported to land by advection process, or remained in the ocean. The cycle is at this point complete and the process starts all over again. 2) to land and back again. In the case where the clouds containing the water molecules are transported to land from the ocean by air currents through a process called advection, condensation as well as precipitation occurs over land. Some of the water on reaching the ground evaporates to the atmosphere while some penetrate to the ground to form underground water. But the largest portion of the water goes back to the ocean in the form of surface run off through streams and rivers. 3) Describe the least one example of the environmental costs of water diversion from river to farms or cities. Water pollution: On diversion to farms, the water is mainly used for irrigation purposes. Yet in these farms chemical fertilizers and pesticides are widely applied. The overflow of water is then released back to the rivers, often without proper treatment, carrying with it elements of the chemical fertilizers as well as those of pesticides from the farms, thus polluting river water downstream as well as lakes, seas and oceans into which he rivers drain their water. 4) Explain the difference between point and non-point pollution. Which is harder to control? Why? Point pollution is pollution that originates from a single source. Non-point pollution originates from many points. Non point pollution is harder to control because the sources are many thus not easily identifiable. 1) How does tectonic plate movement create ocean basins, mid ocean ridges, and volcanoes? The movement of tectonic plates could be in the direction of each other or drifting apart. When the plate drifts apart, and it so happens that their boundary is in the ocean, the result is to open a gap in this boundary. This gap, depending on the extend of movement, could form an oceanic basin, a mid oceanic ridge, or even a volcano. 2) Describe some of the mining, processing, and drilling methods that can degrade water or air quality. Underground mining pollutes underground water. Most mineral processing methods consume a lot of water and use chemicals that pollutes water in rivers when released back to them. 3) What resources, aside from minerals themselves, can be saved by recycling? Water resources, Forests, 1) What are the major sources of global energy? Hydroelectricity, Wood fuel, oil, and electricity from nuclear-powered power stations. 2) What are proven-in-place reserves? These the amount of oil that has been estimated to exist in an oil ground/field. 3) What are biofuels, how could they contribute to sustainability? Biofuels are fuels that are extracted from products of plants. The sources of these fuels are renewable thus support sustainability. Reference Shortle, J, Gerrard, D. (2001). Environmental policies for agricultural pollution control. NY: CABI.

Perceived Effectiveness of Sports Massage Therapy

Perceived Effectiveness of Sports Massage Therapy Massage therapy has been used ancient times. There is evidence that the Chinese used therapeutic massage more than 3,000 years ago. Massage has fallen in and out of favour over time. One of the newest forms of massage therapy is sports massage. Famous athletes have publicly expressed their great satisfaction with sports massage. They claim that it has increased their athletic performance and helped speed their recovery after strenuous exercise. Non-professional athletes and their trainers has also become increasingly interested in sports massage, partly because of the acclaim it has received from elite athletes. This has led to even more interest in the therapy by non-athletes. Some of the popularity of sports massage can be attributed to the increasing acceptance of all forms of alternative therapies. Despite all of the intense interest, there is a lack of accurate information about massage. There are many widely held perceptions about the effectiveness of pre-event sports massage, including that it can prevent injury and provide an edge over the competition. However, there is no published research that suggests pre-event massage has a positive impact on performance or injury prevention. There is some evidence that massage after an athletic event can help reduce pain, but the results remain inconclusive. There has also been research that concluded that regular, or maintenance, massages can alleviate some symptoms. In 2004, a research team published A Meta-Analysis of Massage Therapy, which provided comprehensive look at the actual effectiveness of sports massage. Among other findings, they concluded that massage may reduce pain. However, the study debunked many of the widely held perceptions about the effectiveness of sports massage. Massage therapy does seem to have an impressive ability to reduce anxiety and depression. While the exact science behind the benefits sports massage remains elusive, many athletes, coaches, and massage therapists continue to believe that it can have a tremendous positive effect if used both before and after sporting events and during periods of training. Introduction Massage is one of the oldest and widely used therapies in the history of mankind. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines massage as: â€Å"the rubbing or kneading of parts of the body especially to aid circulation, relax the muscles, or provide sensual stimulation.† These benefits have been enjoyed since ancient times and almost all cultures have used some version of therapeutic massage(Vickers, Zelman, 1999). However, in more recent history, massage has become an important tool for athletes. Sports massage is now considered powerful way to help maximize athletic performance (Davidson, 2001). The prevalence of this type of massage has rapidly increased over the last two decades and the perceived effectiveness of sports massages given before and after athletic events has become widespread. Massage may have become more en vogue recently, but it is certainly not new. The first evidence of massage can be seen in the Chinese Cong-Fou, written around 2700 B.C. The text makes references to the manipulation of soft tissue. The ancient Chinese massage techniques involved applying pressure to muscles and meridian points. There is evidence that the ancient Chinese practitioners believed their massage not only relaxed muscles, but also improved the function of internal organs(Calvert, 2001). Ancient Indian texts also described various massage techniques that were believed to promote spiritual and physical healing (Pike, p.viii). Even Hippocrates taught a form of massage to his students around500 B.C. Another famous Greek medical practitioner, Asclepiads, was so impressed by the perceived benefits of massage that the stopped using all other medicines and treatments and only used massage therapy for healing. He believed that massage techniques could increase and restore nutritive fluids (Calvert, 2001). However, over time, Western cultures gradually abandoned the Greek beliefs about massage. During the middle ages, massage was still used as a folk remedy, but established medical scientists discounted it and the use of massage was no longer considered part of regular medical treatment. (Calvert, 2001). About 150 years ago, a French translation of the Cong-Four appeared. Historians believe the text served as the foundation for the development of the now-popular Swedish massage (Davidson, 2001). There is some dispute over the origins of Swedish massage, but many credit Per Hendrix Ling for its development during the early 18th century. Ling promoted the idea that massage could heal the body by boosting circulation of the blood and limp systems. Ling’s massage technique was very vigorous and he prescribed a standardized treatment. He suffered from gout and developed the system to improve his condition and later to help others. He did not equate massage with relaxation or any other psychological benefit. In fact, he called it the â€Å"Swedish Movement Cure† (Cates, 1998). Current Swedish massage has evolved somewhat from Ling’s ideas and is now more gentle, although the focus is still on increasing the flow of oxygen in the blood and to assist the muscles in releasing toxins. In the last few decades, Swedish massage therapists have placed greater emphasis on the psychological benefits of massage and they strive to provide a sense of calmness and well-being.(Vickers, Zelman, 1999) Historically, the interest in massage has been cyclical. Massage fallout of favour, only to once again regain acceptance, many times over the last 500 years. Currently, massage has become far less important tour culture than medical drugs and surgery, but it is again becoming more popular as an alternative therapy (Cates, 1998). There are still many forms of massage found throughout the world, including Hawaiian, deep tissue, and Tue. Na. One of the newest forms of massage is sports massage. Although it is considered a separate form of massage, it shares strong similarities with Swedish Massage and the most of the techniques employed in Swedish massage are used in sports massage(Davidson, 2001). However, sports massage also incorporates Shiatsu massage techniques. Sports massage was largely developed by Jack Meagher. Meagher was the massage therapist for the US Olympic Equestrian Team. He developed sports massage based on the theory that there are a dozen body postures that form the axis of all athletic movement. Meagher said that because each sport requires that the athlete maintain certain postures, it is possible to identify potential overuse injuries before they occur and help prevent them through sports massage. Meagher wrote that athletic performance could be improved by 20% with the introduction of sports massage (Dion, 2001). Although sports massage encompasses many techniques, all sports massages geared toward generating the maximum performance from an athlete. The effects of sports massage are achieved through a combination of mechanical, physiological, and psychological processes. Research has demonstrated that the compression caused by correctly-applied sports massage can improve lymphatic and venous drainage in the body and boost circulation (Hollis, 1997). Under the general heading of sports massage, there are three distinctly different types of massage. Each has a different goal and employs different strokes. The three categories of sports massage are pre-event, post-event, and maintenance massage. Although sports massage has recently become more sophisticated, modern athletics have been using forms of pre-event and post-event massage for decades. For example, baseball pitchers have long used massage as an attempt to extend the length of their career by maintaining range of motion and flexibility. For many decades, boxing coaches and trainers have been seen giving boxers â€Å"rubdowns† before a fight in an effort toward-up the body by boosting circulation. This is an early form fore-event massage (Pike, p.viii). Modern sports massage first became integrated as part some teams ‘standard athletic training in the former Soviet Union, East Germany, and other Eastern European countries during the 1960s. Soviet teams were the first to employ dedicated massage therapists that traveled with them. In the 1970s, the trend became more widespread, as more European countries and teams in the United States began to take interest in sports massage (Davidson, 2001). However, it is only since the 1980s that sports massage has become truly mainstream. Now, it is a common practice for teams to integrate sports massage as part of their standard training regimen. Certified sports massage therapists have been seen at many major sporting events, including Ironman competitions, the Goodwill and Pan-American games, marathons, the Olympics, and professional bike races (Latina, 2000).When the U.S women’s soccer team defeated China, winning the World Cup, the players publicly thanked their sports massage therapist, Wynn Clinton and Jim Fayola. Goalkeeper Tracy Ducat said, â€Å"Clinton and Jim Fayola, who worked with him during the World Cup, were invaluable in the treatment they provided for us, testified Tracy Ducat, a goalkeeper on the team. We could not have been at our best without their help every day. Goalie Saki Webber agreed, saying, Without Clinton I think that it would have been a much different story. I think that he kept us healthy and kept us together during the World Cup† (Hued, 2002). Sports massage has also infiltrated smaller sports. For example, even some Canadian cowboys are receiving massages before and after rodeos, thanks to new mobile massage rooms are traveling with them (Visconti,p.54). Although professional sports teams have lead the way in incorporating sports massage, college, some secondary schools, and amateur teams are also exploring massage as a way to enhance performance. The public’s perceived value of the effectiveness of sports massage has been fuelled by public statements from well-known professional athletes who say their extraordinary skills have improved after undergoing regular massage therapy. For example, tennis champion, Martina Navratilova said, â€Å"I started getting massages and realized what wonderful thing it is for your body† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field ). Former professional football quarterback, Joe Montana, has said, â€Å"I’ve been working with massage for a few years now, and I found it helps you to recover a little quicker. The bumps and bruises seem Togo away a lot faster† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field). Canadian National Swim Team member, Marianne Limpet, agrees: â€Å"I find that massage is very beneficial in helping with a quicker recovery from hard training or racing, and it prevents me from getting tight muscles and injuring myself. I am one of few athletes at my age(30), and Im sure that massage has played a major role in helping to keep my body in shape to continue to this level† (Warren, 2003). Even Marjorie Album, the Chief Athletic Trainer of the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games, once commented, â€Å"I would not provide sports medicine services for any major athletic event without massage therapists.†(Sports Massage: The Athlete’s Trainer’s Edge ) With glowing testimonials from esteemed athletes and sports professionals, it is not surprising that more amateur and college athletes are now becoming interested in sports massage. After all, our society places great emphasis and value on athletics, and the financial and emotional rewards can be great to those who excel in their chosen sport. It is not surprising that sports massage is popular among those searching for competitive edge. This relatively new appreciation for sports massage has increased as part of a larger trend toward ergogenic aids to boost all types of athletic performance. Ergogenic aids include a wide variety of tools and therapies, such as visualization, meditation, and pre-event stretching. Advocates of sports massage say it is valuable ergogenic tool that can improve circulation, reduce stress, promote muscle efficiency and healing, and even prevent injuries (Pike, p. vii). The perceived benefits of massage have also become more wide-spread as the general acceptance of alternative medicines has increased. In a1997 random sample of 1,500 households in the United States, 42% of adults reported using some type of alternative therapy in the last year. Nearly 45% said they would be willing to pay more each month for alternative care. Additionally, when choosing healthcare, nearly 70% of respondents said having access to alternative therapies is an important factor in choosing a health insurance plan (Landmark Healthcare Inc.,1997). Alternative medicine is even more popular in the United Kingdom, where in studies, nearly 47% of respondents have reported they are using alternative therapies. Also in the U.K., of those undergoing complementary medicine, nearly nine out of ten are paying for their treatment (Thomas et al. p. 2 -11 ). Massage therapy is one of the fasting growing forms of alternative medicine. In 1999, The American Massage Therapy Association (AMTA)conducted a nationwide survey in the United States. Researchers found that 27% of adults had therapeutic massage in the last five years, compared to only 17% in a 1997 study who said they had a massage in the previous five years (Massage: Much-Kneaded Complementary Health Care). Another study conducted the previous year found that visits to massage therapists increased by nearly 36% in the years between 1990 and 1997(Eisenberg et al. p. 1569). Furthermore, in 2004, the National Centerior Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States reported that massage has become the ninth most popular alternative therapy treatment. In the study, 5% of respondents said they had received massage therapy at least one time in the previous year (Boneset al.). This translates into big business for the massage industry, as American consumers are spending up to $6 billion dollars a year on massage therapy (Eisenberg et al., p. 1569). This increasing interesting massage has created a surge in massage school educational facilities and applicants. As of 2002, there were more than 950 state-licensed massage schools in the U.S., which is 14% more school than existed in2000. In 2001, massage schools turned out an estimated 30,000 new graduates (Lacombe, p. 49). There are other significant signs that the perceived benefits of massage is having a strong effect on public policy. In the United States, The National Institutes of Health is currently sponsoring three studies in an attempt to clarify the medical benefits of massage. Additionally, a national survey of employer-sponsored healthcare plans found that 15% of HMOs cover massage therapy. Cigna and Blue Cross BlueShield also cover some forms of massage (Lacombe, p. 49).Furthermore, a 1995 study found that more than half of family doctors in the United States said they would recommend some form of massage therapy to their clients (Hedwig, p.1). This is a concern to some researchers who wonder if the benefits of massage are worth the price of the therapy. In their meta-analysis of massage therapy research, Moyer, Rounds, and Hanno wrote, â€Å"For these trends to continue (indeed, to determine if they even should continue),what is needed is a more rigorous and quantitative examination of MT’s(massage therapy’s) effectiveness that that which currently exists†(Moyer et al.). The perceived, yet often unexplained, effects of massage (including sports massage) have even created interested within the White House. In2004, the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy called for more research and funding for public education on massage therapy. The commission’s chairman, James Gordon, did not offer an explanation of the actual benefits of massage, but he did allude to the widespread perceived effectiveness of the alternative treatment. He said: We shouldnt put too much weight on its benefits, but at the same time we should make it available to everyone. Massage does decrease anxiety, reliably. It does decrease pain in a number of people with chronic-pain syndrome. It does improve mood. Exactly how it does it, I don’t think we know (Lacombe, p. 50). AMTA researchers say as more people accept massage therapy as a viable treatment option, more athletes are becoming interested in sports massage. The AMATA now recognizes sports massage as a unique specialty field within the massage industry. There has also been increased interest in sports massage among the so-called â€Å"weekend warriors†(people who only exercise on the weekends) and those do not consider themselves athletes or exercise regularly. No matter how little time they spend taking part in athletics, some people want to enjoy the perceived benefits of sports massage. Licensed massage therapist John Balletto said, â€Å"Anyone who exercises or works in an active job or even has to constantly bend down to pick up a child can benefit from sports massage. This type of massage helps muscles deal with the repetitive motions inherent to these activities (Latina, 2000). In the past, there was a public perception that only elite athletes and wealthy, pampered women received regular massages. As sports massage becomes more mainstream and begins to be embraced by the general public, there is an increased perception that sports massage is not only a luxury, but a new necessity. This trend can be seen in many forms of mainstream media. For example, a college newspaper in Texas, The University Daily, recently ran an article that stated that more financially strained college students were paying for massages as a way to combat stress. It also explained how deep tissue massage can help relieve pain associated with carrying heavy book bags and suggested that students ask their parents to pay for a massage session. A massage therapist in the article was quoted as saying, â€Å"It is very therapeutic. It’s not a luxury like people think. If more people think of it as therapy, then more people could justify it that way (Aaron). However, despite the widespread interest in sports massage, there is a lack of reliable information on its benefits and effects. Using a search engine like Goolgle.com to search under the â€Å"benefits of sports massage† will turn up hundreds of websites offering glowing testimonials about the therapy and claims that are not backed up by current scientific research. For instance, SportsInjuryClinic.net claims that regular sports massage treatments will â€Å"maintain the body, prevent injuries and loss of mobility, cure and restore mobility to injured muscle tissue, boost performance, and extend the overall life of your sporting career† (Sports Injury Clinic). Another website for massage centre in Connecticut bluntly states, â€Å"Massage is beneficial when starting a conditioning program because it helps you get into good shape faster† (Buckland Massage Neuromuscular Centre). With so many websites making fantastic claims about the benefits of sports massage, it is easy to understand why the perceived benefits of sports massage currently held by the general public do not always match current scientific research. As previously mentioned, sports massage is broken down into three main categories: pre-event, post-event, and routine maintenance. Each of these forms of sports massage uses a combination of stroke techniques. In order to understand the research and perceived benefits of sports massage, it is important to understand the various stroke styles. The most common stroke strokes are effleurage, petrissage, and cupping(Davidson, 2001). Other common strokes include friction, range of motion movements, trigger point, and compression (which some massage therapists classify as a type of petrissage) (Pike, p. 26-31). Effleurage utilizes long, gentle strokes. This is the most basic type of stroke and warms the area for the work to come by increasing blood flow to the muscle (Pike, p. 26). This is the main stroke for creating relaxation and is often used most frequently at the start and end of massage therapy session, although it is useful throughout the therapy(Cates, 1998). Petrissage is a firmer, two handed kneading technique that includes blows to the muscle. Both hands grab the muscle and compress it. Massage therapists use petrissage to loosen tight muscles and squeeze blood out from deeper structures (Davidson, 2001). Cupping involves hitting the muscles with cupped hands. This stroke technique is used to break down scar tissue, relieve tension and tone the muscles (Davidson, 2001). Friction strokes are used only during deep tissue massage to relax the muscles and reduce adhesions. These circular strokes generate heat by increasing blood flow to the area being worked on (Pike, p. 32) Range of motion movements are assisted exercises that the massage therapist uses to increase the mobility of joints. The massage therapist moves the body while the athlete stays relaxed. Massage therapists report that this technique can extremely helpful for athletes, who usually need to have the maximum range of movement possible in order to excel at their sport (Pike, p. 34). Trigger points are parts of the muscle that are tight and painful. When massage therapist applies pressure to a trigger point, the athlete will often cry out in pain. Correctly massaging a trigger point will help release tight muscles and â€Å"break the pain cycle so the tissue can get blood and nutrients to heal and relax itself† (Pike, p. 31) Compression strokes are used on muscle bellies, generally in large areas, like the adductors. Massage therapists use compression, which Isa squeezing movement, to feel the tissues under the skin. Compression can stimulate and warm the tissue or relax the athlete, depending on the firmness of the stroke (Pike, p. 30). Many people mistakenly think that sports massage is beneficial because it is somehow â€Å"deeper† than other massages. However, that is not always the case. Sports massage is any massage technique that allows â€Å"active people to stay active, to keep the body in working order, and to aid rehabilitation following injury.. Thus it can also involve gentle rubbing, or even no rubbing at all. In fact, there are times when rubbing may be harmful and in this instance, stretching may be more beneficial† (Famous Therapies). Literature Review Many massage therapists believe that pre-event sports massage can help prevent serious injury by warming-up the muscles and improve performance during a competition. Meagre was strong advocate for-event massages. In his book, Sports massage, he wrote: Whatever sport you play, Sports massage will give you 20 per cent extraextra performance, extra protection, (and) extra time per game, per season, (and) per career.With Sports massage you can do what you do better, longer, and more easily, raising your performance level at the same time that you lower the stress level it places on your body†¦. Sports massage before (problems) reach the critical stage is the only sensible way to keep your entire muscular structure in top form(Massage Before, or After?). Pre-event massage is not intended to replace traditional warm-up methods. It is usually performed just before the athlete’s standard warm-up. Rapid effleurage stimulates and warms the muscles andpetrissage encourages the release of tension. It is common for the massage therapist to use shaking and stretching techniques. Deep tissue and friction are avoided. The part of the body that is massaged depends on the sport, but usually includes leg and back muscles (Davidson,2001). Pre-event massage generally only lasts about ten minutes. The goal Isa reduction in tension, but not total relaxation. Sports massage therapist, James Weslaco, says that most athlete want to feel stimulated, not overly relaxed, by a pre-event massage because being too relaxed can adversely affect performance (Vanderbilt, 2001). â€Å"(Pre-event massage) objectives are to increase circulation, increase range of motion of the joints, decrease tightness and hyper tonicity of major joints and muscles, and to relax and then invigorate the body to get it ready for the competition† (Pike, p. 19) The perceived benefit of fully prepared muscles is important to many athletes, who are well-aware of the many career-ending injuries that have been blamed on not properly warming-up. There is a widely-held belief that overuse injuries can be avoided if the athlete is warmed-up with a combination of massage and standard warm-up practices. However, many studies have suggested that the benefits of pre-event sports massage are mostly psychological and there is no evidence theatre-event massage can decrease the risk of injuries (Harmer, p.55). Some athletes say they perform better on the field after receiving pre-event massage. However, again, the benefits appear to be purely psychological. Research shows that massage, which is part of passive warm-up techniques that can also include saunas and hot showers, have little positive effect on performance (Volant’s, et al., 2001). In one study, members of a group of athletes who received pre-event massage each reported feeling that they could perform better on the field because of the therapy. Yet, their performance, heart rate and arteriovenous oxygen responses were not noticeable different than those of a control group that did not receive massage (Boone, et al., 1991). Although there are many widely embraced perceived benefits to pre-event sports massage, there has not been enough research to back up the antidotal evidence given by athletes and their massage therapists. Some studies have indicated that there can be physiological responses that result in improved outcome for the athlete. However, much of the research has not quantified the technique and pressure used by the massage therapist.. No study to date has examined how stroke forms and pressure (light touch versus firm) as an independent variable can affect athletic performance (Moyer et al.). Even though the benefits of pre-event massage are still unknown, it continues to increase in popularity, not just in athletics but also another performance-driven industries. Robert King, president and-founder of Chicago School of Massage Therapy, says Its a debatable subject in terms of actual research that substantiates it.† Yet, he continues to see the demand for pre-event message grow. Ive worked on runners, actors and actresses before performances, boxers and swimmers, and again it depends on the type of muscle youre going to encounter and the condition and goals of the athlete. The approach is geared toward the needs of that particular event (Vanderbilt, 2001). Unlike pre-event massage, post-event massage may have measurable benefits. Post-event massage is performed one to two hours after the athlete has finished taking part in a sporting event, in order to allow time for blood vessels dilated by exercise to return to their normal state. The goal of this type of massage is to reduce the trauma caused by strenuous exercise. Light effleurage is used to minimize swelling. Practitioners believe light petrissage will promotes cellular waste removal and clear toxins from the body. (Pike, p. 20). â€Å"The goals are to relax tight muscles, decrease muscle soreness, facilitate faster recovery time, relieve cramping, increase lymphatic circulation and removal of post activity metabolites, and relax the nervous system† (Pike, p. 20). Other perceived benefits of post-event massage therapy include the lessening of muscle spasms and an increase in flexibility which may prevent future injuries. Although receiving a massage after a strenuous workout can feel very pleasurable, practitioners should limit sessions to under 30 minutes because tired muscles may be more prone to injury. In fact, some therapists believe that the longer the athletic event is, the shorter the post-event massage should be (Cates, 1998). The perceived effectiveness of post-event massage is pervasive among professional athletes. There is a strong belief that the therapy can speed recovery after extreme exertion. For example, Butch Reynolds, the400 meter world record holder was quoted as saying that because of massage, â€Å"If [a muscle pull or strain] does occur, it’s easy to heal. The healing process is cut in half.† Professional football linebacker Al Smith has also heralded the benefits of post-event massage. He said, â€Å"It helps me quite a bit. It helps my recovery time from the game. Athletes are using it quite a bit.† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field)Perhaps the most famous advocate of post-event massage is Michael Jordan. In talking about his physical problems after a performance, the basketball player said, â€Å"I was a little concerned, because I couldn’t really walk welland my mobility was very, very limited. But two days of electros Tim, massaging and heat treatments really loosened things up (How Massage Aides Athletic Performance). Despite scepticism that massage has physiological benefits, Davidson advocates the use of post-event massage to speed recovery (2001). She writes that sports massage can reduce the swelling of micro-traumas. Micro-traumas are small tears that occur in muscles during strenuous exercise. Davidson claims that post-event massage will also remove lactic acid and waste build-up in the muscles, help maintain flexibility, and reduce cramping. However, while Davidson’s theories may be popular, there are studies that dispute the claims. For instance, the blood pressure, cardiac output, heart rate, and lactic acid levels of ten men were compared during a recent study. Lactic acid is a by-product of exercise that occurs during exercise when there is a lack of oxygen in the body’s tissues. Some massage practitioners have made the claim that massage can help the body eliminate waste products, including lactic acid. However, the men in the study who received massage had similar levels of lactic acid to the men who were not treated with a massage(Callaghan, p. 31). Furthermore, the group that received massages performed no better than the control group. The idea the lactic acid can (and should) be flushed from the body during post-event massage is a good example of how the perceived effectiveness of massage does not always match current scientific research. For many years, massage therapists believed that they could help athletes get rid of lactic acid. They passed this belief onto clients, including many athletes, who accepted the theory as fact. The false assumptions about lactic acid were even taught in massage schools. Even though scientific studies have debunked this belief, many athletes still think they need post-event massage to rid their bodies of lactic acid (Vanderbilt, 2001). Despite the critics, many massage therapists are convinced of the benefits of post-event massage. They say post-event massage can help determine why an athlete did not perform up to expectations. A massage therapist for the Los Angeles Dodgers, William Leisure, said he uses post-event massage in the same way a detective might search for clues. Leisure described his work not only in terms of keeping the players ‘muscles loose and relaxed, but also keeping constant watch on their bodies. Even if someones not injured, if the performance wasnt quite right, I do a palpation to see if any muscles are tight. It has a lot to do with how good your hands are. Your brain and your thumbs have to be as one†¦ Its not just a rub. Its the information I can get from the body and turn it into something else to try to make a cohesive plan. Scanning the tissue and checking for deviations is kind of diagnostic, actually. That helps them to stay at peak performance (Vanderbilt,2001). The third category of sports massage, maintenance, is not administered on days of competition or performance. Instead it is done between events (Pike, p. 21). Usually, maintenance massages are given once week as part of Perceived Effectiveness of Sports Massage Therapy Perceived Effectiveness of Sports Massage Therapy Massage therapy has been used ancient times. There is evidence that the Chinese used therapeutic massage more than 3,000 years ago. Massage has fallen in and out of favour over time. One of the newest forms of massage therapy is sports massage. Famous athletes have publicly expressed their great satisfaction with sports massage. They claim that it has increased their athletic performance and helped speed their recovery after strenuous exercise. Non-professional athletes and their trainers has also become increasingly interested in sports massage, partly because of the acclaim it has received from elite athletes. This has led to even more interest in the therapy by non-athletes. Some of the popularity of sports massage can be attributed to the increasing acceptance of all forms of alternative therapies. Despite all of the intense interest, there is a lack of accurate information about massage. There are many widely held perceptions about the effectiveness of pre-event sports massage, including that it can prevent injury and provide an edge over the competition. However, there is no published research that suggests pre-event massage has a positive impact on performance or injury prevention. There is some evidence that massage after an athletic event can help reduce pain, but the results remain inconclusive. There has also been research that concluded that regular, or maintenance, massages can alleviate some symptoms. In 2004, a research team published A Meta-Analysis of Massage Therapy, which provided comprehensive look at the actual effectiveness of sports massage. Among other findings, they concluded that massage may reduce pain. However, the study debunked many of the widely held perceptions about the effectiveness of sports massage. Massage therapy does seem to have an impressive ability to reduce anxiety and depression. While the exact science behind the benefits sports massage remains elusive, many athletes, coaches, and massage therapists continue to believe that it can have a tremendous positive effect if used both before and after sporting events and during periods of training. Introduction Massage is one of the oldest and widely used therapies in the history of mankind. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines massage as: â€Å"the rubbing or kneading of parts of the body especially to aid circulation, relax the muscles, or provide sensual stimulation.† These benefits have been enjoyed since ancient times and almost all cultures have used some version of therapeutic massage(Vickers, Zelman, 1999). However, in more recent history, massage has become an important tool for athletes. Sports massage is now considered powerful way to help maximize athletic performance (Davidson, 2001). The prevalence of this type of massage has rapidly increased over the last two decades and the perceived effectiveness of sports massages given before and after athletic events has become widespread. Massage may have become more en vogue recently, but it is certainly not new. The first evidence of massage can be seen in the Chinese Cong-Fou, written around 2700 B.C. The text makes references to the manipulation of soft tissue. The ancient Chinese massage techniques involved applying pressure to muscles and meridian points. There is evidence that the ancient Chinese practitioners believed their massage not only relaxed muscles, but also improved the function of internal organs(Calvert, 2001). Ancient Indian texts also described various massage techniques that were believed to promote spiritual and physical healing (Pike, p.viii). Even Hippocrates taught a form of massage to his students around500 B.C. Another famous Greek medical practitioner, Asclepiads, was so impressed by the perceived benefits of massage that the stopped using all other medicines and treatments and only used massage therapy for healing. He believed that massage techniques could increase and restore nutritive fluids (Calvert, 2001). However, over time, Western cultures gradually abandoned the Greek beliefs about massage. During the middle ages, massage was still used as a folk remedy, but established medical scientists discounted it and the use of massage was no longer considered part of regular medical treatment. (Calvert, 2001). About 150 years ago, a French translation of the Cong-Four appeared. Historians believe the text served as the foundation for the development of the now-popular Swedish massage (Davidson, 2001). There is some dispute over the origins of Swedish massage, but many credit Per Hendrix Ling for its development during the early 18th century. Ling promoted the idea that massage could heal the body by boosting circulation of the blood and limp systems. Ling’s massage technique was very vigorous and he prescribed a standardized treatment. He suffered from gout and developed the system to improve his condition and later to help others. He did not equate massage with relaxation or any other psychological benefit. In fact, he called it the â€Å"Swedish Movement Cure† (Cates, 1998). Current Swedish massage has evolved somewhat from Ling’s ideas and is now more gentle, although the focus is still on increasing the flow of oxygen in the blood and to assist the muscles in releasing toxins. In the last few decades, Swedish massage therapists have placed greater emphasis on the psychological benefits of massage and they strive to provide a sense of calmness and well-being.(Vickers, Zelman, 1999) Historically, the interest in massage has been cyclical. Massage fallout of favour, only to once again regain acceptance, many times over the last 500 years. Currently, massage has become far less important tour culture than medical drugs and surgery, but it is again becoming more popular as an alternative therapy (Cates, 1998). There are still many forms of massage found throughout the world, including Hawaiian, deep tissue, and Tue. Na. One of the newest forms of massage is sports massage. Although it is considered a separate form of massage, it shares strong similarities with Swedish Massage and the most of the techniques employed in Swedish massage are used in sports massage(Davidson, 2001). However, sports massage also incorporates Shiatsu massage techniques. Sports massage was largely developed by Jack Meagher. Meagher was the massage therapist for the US Olympic Equestrian Team. He developed sports massage based on the theory that there are a dozen body postures that form the axis of all athletic movement. Meagher said that because each sport requires that the athlete maintain certain postures, it is possible to identify potential overuse injuries before they occur and help prevent them through sports massage. Meagher wrote that athletic performance could be improved by 20% with the introduction of sports massage (Dion, 2001). Although sports massage encompasses many techniques, all sports massages geared toward generating the maximum performance from an athlete. The effects of sports massage are achieved through a combination of mechanical, physiological, and psychological processes. Research has demonstrated that the compression caused by correctly-applied sports massage can improve lymphatic and venous drainage in the body and boost circulation (Hollis, 1997). Under the general heading of sports massage, there are three distinctly different types of massage. Each has a different goal and employs different strokes. The three categories of sports massage are pre-event, post-event, and maintenance massage. Although sports massage has recently become more sophisticated, modern athletics have been using forms of pre-event and post-event massage for decades. For example, baseball pitchers have long used massage as an attempt to extend the length of their career by maintaining range of motion and flexibility. For many decades, boxing coaches and trainers have been seen giving boxers â€Å"rubdowns† before a fight in an effort toward-up the body by boosting circulation. This is an early form fore-event massage (Pike, p.viii). Modern sports massage first became integrated as part some teams ‘standard athletic training in the former Soviet Union, East Germany, and other Eastern European countries during the 1960s. Soviet teams were the first to employ dedicated massage therapists that traveled with them. In the 1970s, the trend became more widespread, as more European countries and teams in the United States began to take interest in sports massage (Davidson, 2001). However, it is only since the 1980s that sports massage has become truly mainstream. Now, it is a common practice for teams to integrate sports massage as part of their standard training regimen. Certified sports massage therapists have been seen at many major sporting events, including Ironman competitions, the Goodwill and Pan-American games, marathons, the Olympics, and professional bike races (Latina, 2000).When the U.S women’s soccer team defeated China, winning the World Cup, the players publicly thanked their sports massage therapist, Wynn Clinton and Jim Fayola. Goalkeeper Tracy Ducat said, â€Å"Clinton and Jim Fayola, who worked with him during the World Cup, were invaluable in the treatment they provided for us, testified Tracy Ducat, a goalkeeper on the team. We could not have been at our best without their help every day. Goalie Saki Webber agreed, saying, Without Clinton I think that it would have been a much different story. I think that he kept us healthy and kept us together during the World Cup† (Hued, 2002). Sports massage has also infiltrated smaller sports. For example, even some Canadian cowboys are receiving massages before and after rodeos, thanks to new mobile massage rooms are traveling with them (Visconti,p.54). Although professional sports teams have lead the way in incorporating sports massage, college, some secondary schools, and amateur teams are also exploring massage as a way to enhance performance. The public’s perceived value of the effectiveness of sports massage has been fuelled by public statements from well-known professional athletes who say their extraordinary skills have improved after undergoing regular massage therapy. For example, tennis champion, Martina Navratilova said, â€Å"I started getting massages and realized what wonderful thing it is for your body† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field ). Former professional football quarterback, Joe Montana, has said, â€Å"I’ve been working with massage for a few years now, and I found it helps you to recover a little quicker. The bumps and bruises seem Togo away a lot faster† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field). Canadian National Swim Team member, Marianne Limpet, agrees: â€Å"I find that massage is very beneficial in helping with a quicker recovery from hard training or racing, and it prevents me from getting tight muscles and injuring myself. I am one of few athletes at my age(30), and Im sure that massage has played a major role in helping to keep my body in shape to continue to this level† (Warren, 2003). Even Marjorie Album, the Chief Athletic Trainer of the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games, once commented, â€Å"I would not provide sports medicine services for any major athletic event without massage therapists.†(Sports Massage: The Athlete’s Trainer’s Edge ) With glowing testimonials from esteemed athletes and sports professionals, it is not surprising that more amateur and college athletes are now becoming interested in sports massage. After all, our society places great emphasis and value on athletics, and the financial and emotional rewards can be great to those who excel in their chosen sport. It is not surprising that sports massage is popular among those searching for competitive edge. This relatively new appreciation for sports massage has increased as part of a larger trend toward ergogenic aids to boost all types of athletic performance. Ergogenic aids include a wide variety of tools and therapies, such as visualization, meditation, and pre-event stretching. Advocates of sports massage say it is valuable ergogenic tool that can improve circulation, reduce stress, promote muscle efficiency and healing, and even prevent injuries (Pike, p. vii). The perceived benefits of massage have also become more wide-spread as the general acceptance of alternative medicines has increased. In a1997 random sample of 1,500 households in the United States, 42% of adults reported using some type of alternative therapy in the last year. Nearly 45% said they would be willing to pay more each month for alternative care. Additionally, when choosing healthcare, nearly 70% of respondents said having access to alternative therapies is an important factor in choosing a health insurance plan (Landmark Healthcare Inc.,1997). Alternative medicine is even more popular in the United Kingdom, where in studies, nearly 47% of respondents have reported they are using alternative therapies. Also in the U.K., of those undergoing complementary medicine, nearly nine out of ten are paying for their treatment (Thomas et al. p. 2 -11 ). Massage therapy is one of the fasting growing forms of alternative medicine. In 1999, The American Massage Therapy Association (AMTA)conducted a nationwide survey in the United States. Researchers found that 27% of adults had therapeutic massage in the last five years, compared to only 17% in a 1997 study who said they had a massage in the previous five years (Massage: Much-Kneaded Complementary Health Care). Another study conducted the previous year found that visits to massage therapists increased by nearly 36% in the years between 1990 and 1997(Eisenberg et al. p. 1569). Furthermore, in 2004, the National Centerior Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States reported that massage has become the ninth most popular alternative therapy treatment. In the study, 5% of respondents said they had received massage therapy at least one time in the previous year (Boneset al.). This translates into big business for the massage industry, as American consumers are spending up to $6 billion dollars a year on massage therapy (Eisenberg et al., p. 1569). This increasing interesting massage has created a surge in massage school educational facilities and applicants. As of 2002, there were more than 950 state-licensed massage schools in the U.S., which is 14% more school than existed in2000. In 2001, massage schools turned out an estimated 30,000 new graduates (Lacombe, p. 49). There are other significant signs that the perceived benefits of massage is having a strong effect on public policy. In the United States, The National Institutes of Health is currently sponsoring three studies in an attempt to clarify the medical benefits of massage. Additionally, a national survey of employer-sponsored healthcare plans found that 15% of HMOs cover massage therapy. Cigna and Blue Cross BlueShield also cover some forms of massage (Lacombe, p. 49).Furthermore, a 1995 study found that more than half of family doctors in the United States said they would recommend some form of massage therapy to their clients (Hedwig, p.1). This is a concern to some researchers who wonder if the benefits of massage are worth the price of the therapy. In their meta-analysis of massage therapy research, Moyer, Rounds, and Hanno wrote, â€Å"For these trends to continue (indeed, to determine if they even should continue),what is needed is a more rigorous and quantitative examination of MT’s(massage therapy’s) effectiveness that that which currently exists†(Moyer et al.). The perceived, yet often unexplained, effects of massage (including sports massage) have even created interested within the White House. In2004, the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy called for more research and funding for public education on massage therapy. The commission’s chairman, James Gordon, did not offer an explanation of the actual benefits of massage, but he did allude to the widespread perceived effectiveness of the alternative treatment. He said: We shouldnt put too much weight on its benefits, but at the same time we should make it available to everyone. Massage does decrease anxiety, reliably. It does decrease pain in a number of people with chronic-pain syndrome. It does improve mood. Exactly how it does it, I don’t think we know (Lacombe, p. 50). AMTA researchers say as more people accept massage therapy as a viable treatment option, more athletes are becoming interested in sports massage. The AMATA now recognizes sports massage as a unique specialty field within the massage industry. There has also been increased interest in sports massage among the so-called â€Å"weekend warriors†(people who only exercise on the weekends) and those do not consider themselves athletes or exercise regularly. No matter how little time they spend taking part in athletics, some people want to enjoy the perceived benefits of sports massage. Licensed massage therapist John Balletto said, â€Å"Anyone who exercises or works in an active job or even has to constantly bend down to pick up a child can benefit from sports massage. This type of massage helps muscles deal with the repetitive motions inherent to these activities (Latina, 2000). In the past, there was a public perception that only elite athletes and wealthy, pampered women received regular massages. As sports massage becomes more mainstream and begins to be embraced by the general public, there is an increased perception that sports massage is not only a luxury, but a new necessity. This trend can be seen in many forms of mainstream media. For example, a college newspaper in Texas, The University Daily, recently ran an article that stated that more financially strained college students were paying for massages as a way to combat stress. It also explained how deep tissue massage can help relieve pain associated with carrying heavy book bags and suggested that students ask their parents to pay for a massage session. A massage therapist in the article was quoted as saying, â€Å"It is very therapeutic. It’s not a luxury like people think. If more people think of it as therapy, then more people could justify it that way (Aaron). However, despite the widespread interest in sports massage, there is a lack of reliable information on its benefits and effects. Using a search engine like Goolgle.com to search under the â€Å"benefits of sports massage† will turn up hundreds of websites offering glowing testimonials about the therapy and claims that are not backed up by current scientific research. For instance, SportsInjuryClinic.net claims that regular sports massage treatments will â€Å"maintain the body, prevent injuries and loss of mobility, cure and restore mobility to injured muscle tissue, boost performance, and extend the overall life of your sporting career† (Sports Injury Clinic). Another website for massage centre in Connecticut bluntly states, â€Å"Massage is beneficial when starting a conditioning program because it helps you get into good shape faster† (Buckland Massage Neuromuscular Centre). With so many websites making fantastic claims about the benefits of sports massage, it is easy to understand why the perceived benefits of sports massage currently held by the general public do not always match current scientific research. As previously mentioned, sports massage is broken down into three main categories: pre-event, post-event, and routine maintenance. Each of these forms of sports massage uses a combination of stroke techniques. In order to understand the research and perceived benefits of sports massage, it is important to understand the various stroke styles. The most common stroke strokes are effleurage, petrissage, and cupping(Davidson, 2001). Other common strokes include friction, range of motion movements, trigger point, and compression (which some massage therapists classify as a type of petrissage) (Pike, p. 26-31). Effleurage utilizes long, gentle strokes. This is the most basic type of stroke and warms the area for the work to come by increasing blood flow to the muscle (Pike, p. 26). This is the main stroke for creating relaxation and is often used most frequently at the start and end of massage therapy session, although it is useful throughout the therapy(Cates, 1998). Petrissage is a firmer, two handed kneading technique that includes blows to the muscle. Both hands grab the muscle and compress it. Massage therapists use petrissage to loosen tight muscles and squeeze blood out from deeper structures (Davidson, 2001). Cupping involves hitting the muscles with cupped hands. This stroke technique is used to break down scar tissue, relieve tension and tone the muscles (Davidson, 2001). Friction strokes are used only during deep tissue massage to relax the muscles and reduce adhesions. These circular strokes generate heat by increasing blood flow to the area being worked on (Pike, p. 32) Range of motion movements are assisted exercises that the massage therapist uses to increase the mobility of joints. The massage therapist moves the body while the athlete stays relaxed. Massage therapists report that this technique can extremely helpful for athletes, who usually need to have the maximum range of movement possible in order to excel at their sport (Pike, p. 34). Trigger points are parts of the muscle that are tight and painful. When massage therapist applies pressure to a trigger point, the athlete will often cry out in pain. Correctly massaging a trigger point will help release tight muscles and â€Å"break the pain cycle so the tissue can get blood and nutrients to heal and relax itself† (Pike, p. 31) Compression strokes are used on muscle bellies, generally in large areas, like the adductors. Massage therapists use compression, which Isa squeezing movement, to feel the tissues under the skin. Compression can stimulate and warm the tissue or relax the athlete, depending on the firmness of the stroke (Pike, p. 30). Many people mistakenly think that sports massage is beneficial because it is somehow â€Å"deeper† than other massages. However, that is not always the case. Sports massage is any massage technique that allows â€Å"active people to stay active, to keep the body in working order, and to aid rehabilitation following injury.. Thus it can also involve gentle rubbing, or even no rubbing at all. In fact, there are times when rubbing may be harmful and in this instance, stretching may be more beneficial† (Famous Therapies). Literature Review Many massage therapists believe that pre-event sports massage can help prevent serious injury by warming-up the muscles and improve performance during a competition. Meagre was strong advocate for-event massages. In his book, Sports massage, he wrote: Whatever sport you play, Sports massage will give you 20 per cent extraextra performance, extra protection, (and) extra time per game, per season, (and) per career.With Sports massage you can do what you do better, longer, and more easily, raising your performance level at the same time that you lower the stress level it places on your body†¦. Sports massage before (problems) reach the critical stage is the only sensible way to keep your entire muscular structure in top form(Massage Before, or After?). Pre-event massage is not intended to replace traditional warm-up methods. It is usually performed just before the athlete’s standard warm-up. Rapid effleurage stimulates and warms the muscles andpetrissage encourages the release of tension. It is common for the massage therapist to use shaking and stretching techniques. Deep tissue and friction are avoided. The part of the body that is massaged depends on the sport, but usually includes leg and back muscles (Davidson,2001). Pre-event massage generally only lasts about ten minutes. The goal Isa reduction in tension, but not total relaxation. Sports massage therapist, James Weslaco, says that most athlete want to feel stimulated, not overly relaxed, by a pre-event massage because being too relaxed can adversely affect performance (Vanderbilt, 2001). â€Å"(Pre-event massage) objectives are to increase circulation, increase range of motion of the joints, decrease tightness and hyper tonicity of major joints and muscles, and to relax and then invigorate the body to get it ready for the competition† (Pike, p. 19) The perceived benefit of fully prepared muscles is important to many athletes, who are well-aware of the many career-ending injuries that have been blamed on not properly warming-up. There is a widely-held belief that overuse injuries can be avoided if the athlete is warmed-up with a combination of massage and standard warm-up practices. However, many studies have suggested that the benefits of pre-event sports massage are mostly psychological and there is no evidence theatre-event massage can decrease the risk of injuries (Harmer, p.55). Some athletes say they perform better on the field after receiving pre-event massage. However, again, the benefits appear to be purely psychological. Research shows that massage, which is part of passive warm-up techniques that can also include saunas and hot showers, have little positive effect on performance (Volant’s, et al., 2001). In one study, members of a group of athletes who received pre-event massage each reported feeling that they could perform better on the field because of the therapy. Yet, their performance, heart rate and arteriovenous oxygen responses were not noticeable different than those of a control group that did not receive massage (Boone, et al., 1991). Although there are many widely embraced perceived benefits to pre-event sports massage, there has not been enough research to back up the antidotal evidence given by athletes and their massage therapists. Some studies have indicated that there can be physiological responses that result in improved outcome for the athlete. However, much of the research has not quantified the technique and pressure used by the massage therapist.. No study to date has examined how stroke forms and pressure (light touch versus firm) as an independent variable can affect athletic performance (Moyer et al.). Even though the benefits of pre-event massage are still unknown, it continues to increase in popularity, not just in athletics but also another performance-driven industries. Robert King, president and-founder of Chicago School of Massage Therapy, says Its a debatable subject in terms of actual research that substantiates it.† Yet, he continues to see the demand for pre-event message grow. Ive worked on runners, actors and actresses before performances, boxers and swimmers, and again it depends on the type of muscle youre going to encounter and the condition and goals of the athlete. The approach is geared toward the needs of that particular event (Vanderbilt, 2001). Unlike pre-event massage, post-event massage may have measurable benefits. Post-event massage is performed one to two hours after the athlete has finished taking part in a sporting event, in order to allow time for blood vessels dilated by exercise to return to their normal state. The goal of this type of massage is to reduce the trauma caused by strenuous exercise. Light effleurage is used to minimize swelling. Practitioners believe light petrissage will promotes cellular waste removal and clear toxins from the body. (Pike, p. 20). â€Å"The goals are to relax tight muscles, decrease muscle soreness, facilitate faster recovery time, relieve cramping, increase lymphatic circulation and removal of post activity metabolites, and relax the nervous system† (Pike, p. 20). Other perceived benefits of post-event massage therapy include the lessening of muscle spasms and an increase in flexibility which may prevent future injuries. Although receiving a massage after a strenuous workout can feel very pleasurable, practitioners should limit sessions to under 30 minutes because tired muscles may be more prone to injury. In fact, some therapists believe that the longer the athletic event is, the shorter the post-event massage should be (Cates, 1998). The perceived effectiveness of post-event massage is pervasive among professional athletes. There is a strong belief that the therapy can speed recovery after extreme exertion. For example, Butch Reynolds, the400 meter world record holder was quoted as saying that because of massage, â€Å"If [a muscle pull or strain] does occur, it’s easy to heal. The healing process is cut in half.† Professional football linebacker Al Smith has also heralded the benefits of post-event massage. He said, â€Å"It helps me quite a bit. It helps my recovery time from the game. Athletes are using it quite a bit.† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field)Perhaps the most famous advocate of post-event massage is Michael Jordan. In talking about his physical problems after a performance, the basketball player said, â€Å"I was a little concerned, because I couldn’t really walk welland my mobility was very, very limited. But two days of electros Tim, massaging and heat treatments really loosened things up (How Massage Aides Athletic Performance). Despite scepticism that massage has physiological benefits, Davidson advocates the use of post-event massage to speed recovery (2001). She writes that sports massage can reduce the swelling of micro-traumas. Micro-traumas are small tears that occur in muscles during strenuous exercise. Davidson claims that post-event massage will also remove lactic acid and waste build-up in the muscles, help maintain flexibility, and reduce cramping. However, while Davidson’s theories may be popular, there are studies that dispute the claims. For instance, the blood pressure, cardiac output, heart rate, and lactic acid levels of ten men were compared during a recent study. Lactic acid is a by-product of exercise that occurs during exercise when there is a lack of oxygen in the body’s tissues. Some massage practitioners have made the claim that massage can help the body eliminate waste products, including lactic acid. However, the men in the study who received massage had similar levels of lactic acid to the men who were not treated with a massage(Callaghan, p. 31). Furthermore, the group that received massages performed no better than the control group. The idea the lactic acid can (and should) be flushed from the body during post-event massage is a good example of how the perceived effectiveness of massage does not always match current scientific research. For many years, massage therapists believed that they could help athletes get rid of lactic acid. They passed this belief onto clients, including many athletes, who accepted the theory as fact. The false assumptions about lactic acid were even taught in massage schools. Even though scientific studies have debunked this belief, many athletes still think they need post-event massage to rid their bodies of lactic acid (Vanderbilt, 2001). Despite the critics, many massage therapists are convinced of the benefits of post-event massage. They say post-event massage can help determine why an athlete did not perform up to expectations. A massage therapist for the Los Angeles Dodgers, William Leisure, said he uses post-event massage in the same way a detective might search for clues. Leisure described his work not only in terms of keeping the players ‘muscles loose and relaxed, but also keeping constant watch on their bodies. Even if someones not injured, if the performance wasnt quite right, I do a palpation to see if any muscles are tight. It has a lot to do with how good your hands are. Your brain and your thumbs have to be as one†¦ Its not just a rub. Its the information I can get from the body and turn it into something else to try to make a cohesive plan. Scanning the tissue and checking for deviations is kind of diagnostic, actually. That helps them to stay at peak performance (Vanderbilt,2001). The third category of sports massage, maintenance, is not administered on days of competition or performance. Instead it is done between events (Pike, p. 21). Usually, maintenance massages are given once week as part of